Decoupling structure–performance relationships in hard carbon anodes: a comparative study of slope- and plateau-dominated sodium storage mechanisms

TY - JOUR

T1 - Decoupling structure–performance relationships in hard carbon anodes

T2 - a comparative study of slope- and plateau-dominated sodium storage mechanisms

AU - Zhang, Xinyu

AU - Gou, Zhaolin

AU - Yang, Feiyang

AU - Su, Yuefeng

AU - Zhang, Cunzhong

AU - Wu, Feng

AU - Li, Ning

AU - Yao, Ying

N1 - Publisher Copyright: This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry, 2026

PY - 2026/4/28

Y1 - 2026/4/28

N2 - Sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) have emerged as a promising candidate for large-scale energy storage applications due to their abundant resources, higher safety, and superior low-temperature performance. The development of advanced anode materials constitutes a fundamental research frontier in SIB technology, where hard carbon (HC) anodes are considered the most promising candidate for commercial implementation due to their balanced performance metrics. However, significant scientific challenges regarding precursor sustainability, structural controllability, and a precise understanding of sodium storage behavior remain. In this work, we established a comprehensive structure–property–performance relationship through rationally designed carbon architectures. Two distinct HC materials, slope-dominated (SD-HC) and plateau-dominated (PD-HC) hard carbons, were synthesized from a gluconate precursor. Through a multimodal characterization approach combining ex situ and in situ spectroscopic techniques, we elucidate the structure–property–performance relationships governing their divergent electrochemical behaviors. Our findings demonstrate that controlled carbonization enables precise regulation of hard carbon's pore architecture and interlayer spacing, thereby dictating the sodium storage behavior. While PD-HC achieves higher capacity via more closed pores, SD-HC exhibits a superior cycling stability of 137.4 mA h g−1 over 3000 cycles at 3C, along with interfacial stability, positioning it as an ideal anode for durable sodium-ion batteries. These results provide a scientific foundation for the rational design of next-generation SIB hard carbon anodes.

AB - Sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) have emerged as a promising candidate for large-scale energy storage applications due to their abundant resources, higher safety, and superior low-temperature performance. The development of advanced anode materials constitutes a fundamental research frontier in SIB technology, where hard carbon (HC) anodes are considered the most promising candidate for commercial implementation due to their balanced performance metrics. However, significant scientific challenges regarding precursor sustainability, structural controllability, and a precise understanding of sodium storage behavior remain. In this work, we established a comprehensive structure–property–performance relationship through rationally designed carbon architectures. Two distinct HC materials, slope-dominated (SD-HC) and plateau-dominated (PD-HC) hard carbons, were synthesized from a gluconate precursor. Through a multimodal characterization approach combining ex situ and in situ spectroscopic techniques, we elucidate the structure–property–performance relationships governing their divergent electrochemical behaviors. Our findings demonstrate that controlled carbonization enables precise regulation of hard carbon's pore architecture and interlayer spacing, thereby dictating the sodium storage behavior. While PD-HC achieves higher capacity via more closed pores, SD-HC exhibits a superior cycling stability of 137.4 mA h g−1 over 3000 cycles at 3C, along with interfacial stability, positioning it as an ideal anode for durable sodium-ion batteries. These results provide a scientific foundation for the rational design of next-generation SIB hard carbon anodes.

UR - https://www.scopus.com/pages/publications/105033039005

U2 - 10.1039/d5ta09811d

DO - 10.1039/d5ta09811d

M3 - Article

AN - SCOPUS:105033039005

SN - 2050-7488

VL - 14

SP - 16164

EP - 16172

JO - Journal of Materials Chemistry A

JF - Journal of Materials Chemistry A

IS - 25

ER -